Methods in Carrying Out A Research Project

Techniques in Carrying Out A Research Project Section one of this module was to feature the examination strategies expected to complete a Work Based Research Project. The examination utilized planned to exhibit the various kinds of exploration techniques accessible, assess them and decide the fitting type of strategy to utilize that was pertinent to the picked subject. In doing this examination strategy different existing writing that gives a reasonable understanding into this theme was investigated and an audit of these was composed to frame a basic and objectional supposition regarding the matter. The primary module empowered me to settle on the proper kind of exploration generally pertinent to the subject picked. My picked theme for research was with respect to the wearing of Personal Protective Equipment P.P.E. inside the steel-fixing industry and the title of this venture is; The wearing of light eye security and gloves for steel fixing Is it generally commonsense and do the advantages surpass the dangers? Foundation of the requirement for this specific subject Having worked for a long time inside the steel-fixing industry I have seen numerous progressions particularly on the bigger structural building locales. The presentation of gloves and light eye security is by numerous an issue that should be tended to on the grounds that by numerous they are considered pointless, awkward and are simply observed as a method of fulfilling the primary contractual workers protection strategy needs while offering for work. In view of this it was esteemed important to bring into power new enactment and this was the point at which The Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992 (PPEW Regulations),were actualized with them producing results on 1 January 1993. The PPEW Regulations had the option to clarify the guidelines on the Use of PPE in the Workplace. (www.hse.gov.uk) this new enactment was expected to uphold the wearing of P.P.E. in the working environment and it additionally featured the orders for the new guidelines both the business and wo rker were required to hold fast to. In segment four of the guidelines it features the obligations of the business to give appropriate P.P.E. for the entirety of their representatives said to be in danger except if the hazard viewed as satisfactorily controlled at source by different methods. In the event that it was regarded essential for the wearing of specific sorts of P.P.E. the businesses were relied upon to comply with specific principles when being approached to gracefully the hardware. It must be fitting for the dangers included the work conditions and the spot it was being required to be worn. The strength of laborers would likewise should be considered alongside the solace, proficiency, wellbeing, and convenience for the laborers it should have been successful in controlling the dangers yet at the same time needed to fall in accordance with the current EC necessity for P.P.E. . In spite of the fact that the mandates inside these new guidelines should be valuable to businesses and representatives the same they are still by some considered to being utilized excessively nonexclusive. Similarity was the following issue concerning the new standards. It was okay to flexibly P.P.E. to the laborers yet on the off chance that it was not perfect with different types of P.P.E. it could bargain the wellbeing and security of said laborers. With the moving tide towards included wellbeing and security an ever increasing number of items were opened up available. With the utilization of eye and hand assurance being the subject of this point an investigate the various sorts of items accessible has been explored and the discoveries feature an exceptionally broad scope of items on offer. Security goggles have consistently been a practically day by day utilized bit of defensive hardware utilized in the cutting of steel with rough wheels, which is a wheel made of grating particles stayed along with different substances. Genuine erosion consumes, squashed fingers and loss of vision are regular wounds emerging from mishaps which happen when individuals are utilizing rough wheels because of little shards of the edge breaking down all through the cutting procedure. (www.hseni.gov.uk) The need to were goggles has consistently been viewed as a need in steel fixing, anyway with the old sorts of goggles accessible and the propensity for them to steam up particularly under limits of warmth individuals would frequently disregard their obligation to were them and take a risk without them. Current kinds of goggles are vastly improved intended to battle this issue. While looking at providers of defensive items it was acknowledged what precisely was on offer, anyway in any event, following the EU orders cost could be an issue to bosses in light of the fact that the requirement for the fitting glasses for the kind of work being embraced could prompt greater expenses. Different issues emerging appear to be with the wearing of defensive eye gear for the individuals who need solution glasses. Answers for this have been found with the presentation of effect safe security glasses, this is useful for the straightforwardly utilized however not for the sub-temporary worker/independently employed as the contractual worker just supplies the base required P.P.E. furthermore, with remedy wellbeing glasses possibly costing more than thirty pounds (www.protecdirect.co.uk) The temporary worker appears to be again hesitant to flexibly them. Numerous providers to the development business of P.P.E. are stopping cool or creator wellbeing glasses (www.elvex.com) which albeit still produced using the item this being a poly-carbonate compound and adjusting to EU enactment, the need for this kind of eyewear isn't basic just adding to the expense of effectively costly P.P.E. for contractual workers especially when bought in the huge amounts they need to particularly when overhauling a portion of the greater agreements. The Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992 (PPEW Regulations), state in guideline 6 that an evaluation wherein P.P.E. is appropriate and doesn't make hazard the representative in wearing it which whenever completed appropriately would work, however as a general rule when the wellbeing and security individual despite everything demand laborers wearing eye insurance in wet or extraordinary conditions it could prompt a trade off in the laborers wellbeing. It likewise expresses that the hardware required matches the gear to be provided and not just the least expensive alternative accessible . Guideline 7 of the(PPEW Regulations), state that each business will guarantee that any close to home defensive gear gave to his representatives is kept up (counting supplanted or cleaned as fitting) in an effective state, in productive working request and in decent shape. What's more, that each independently employed individual will guarantee that any close to home defensive hardware gave to him is kept up (counting supplanted or cleaned as fitting) in a proficient state, in productive working request and in decent shape (www.opsi.gov.uk). This works practically speaking when anyway representatives advise their managers regarding the requirement for additional glasses due to scratched focal points it is frequently disapproved of prompting the representatives at times proceeding to utilize second rate hardware a basic answer for this may be to give a type of cheap convey case to use to help mitigate the issue. The wearing of glasses is genuinely straight forward with no genuine preparing essential however representatives ought to be made progressively mindful of the various sorts of item accessible to them. (www.opsi.gov.uk) With the writing explored in the initial segment of this module combined with the measurements accumulated I imagined that the requirement for the wearing of security glasses seemed to be evident anyway with the guide of contextual analyses and some short casual meetings the advantages and disadvantages alongside the potential advantages from the wearing of such things should turn out to be increasingly self-evident. From an individual stance I believe that a marginally less tough methodology could be taken to at present cling to the EU mandates. It must be underscored this is just an individual view and that the enactment cited toward the start of this article would should be clung to consistently to satisfy the commitment to both the business and the representative. From the past building up a work based task I found that insights demonstrated wounds to hand/arm are the second most normal kind of injury in the development business. Locales currently are additionally embracing a swe eping gloves strategy to correspond with the wearing of glasses as effectively front referenced the need is by all accounts evident however for some specialists they despite everything feel that they ought to have an opportunity of decision. In the wake of finishing the examination and having assembled and investigated the different types of information accessible It was evident that the most suitable strategies for social occasion of information for this specific subject would be contextual analyses alongside some short casual meetings. These techniques are especially important in light of the fact that I can draw upon genuine contextual analyses I have by and by had a few dealings with, and with the guide of some short casual meetings with the people included the discoveries will show whether the wearing of said sorts of P.P.E. would profit everybody requested to wear it or whether it ought to be made increasingly explicit to specific sorts of exchanges instead of a complete conve ntional site strategy. Additionally with the accumulated data, contextual investigations and the meetings it should show the pertinence of the two sorts of gear being approached to be worn both from the viewpoint of the business and that of the worker. This first contextual investigation being watched concerns the wearing of light eye assurance and maybe repeats most from the businesses perspective the significance and need to thoroughly authorize the wearing of such things. A Steel fixer I was working with was fixing steel on an enormous rooftop chunk of a correspondences expanding on a notable nearby American aviation based armed forces base. This sort of work is in every case intensely strengthened with numerous mind boggling configuration issues emerging on account of the particulars of the agreement because of the security and the quality should have been accomplished for the life span of the structure as well as the need to withstand possible assault from gatecrashers, fear mongers and so forth. In light of this ordinary methods of steel fixing do

Disturbance of Corporate Personality and Law Coursework

Unsettling influence of Corporate Personality and Law - Coursework Example This examination will start with the explanation that one of the ethical issues in the co-work scene today is the demonstration of paying off organization authorities so as to get tenders and different requests in the business world. This is where the organization authorities are provided pay-offs so as to hand over a specific request to a specific provider. Paying off different authorities to hand over data with respect to a contending organization falls in a similar classification as dishonest business conduct. These offenses are legitimately deserving of the law in the United States of America. It is recorded that a large portion of these organizations are unmindful of this as an offense that is deserving of universal law. In any case, authorities ought not take hush-money under any conditions. This makes the opposition in the market to be out of line. The piece of the overall industry at that point is bound to move from a serious market to an imposing business model. Imposing bus iness model of the market makes it universes harder to guarantee the privileges of the shopper are very much clung to. This sort of good circumstance ought not exist in a perfect society not to mention a business circumstance. Annihilating such indecencies shrouds a greater picture of guaranteeing that each of the people’s interests is better secured. This must be finished by the powerful training of individuals both of their privileges and of the wrongs they may submit in the event that they remain oblivious. An ongoing model is the distribution in a worldwide debasement report made by straightforwardness universal. This report indicated that organizations are still prone to offer pay-offs to authorities of different states so as to get their items into those states quicker. Likewise pay-offs offered to political heavyweights for smoother route of the item inside the political atmosphere of the state. Issues achieved by organizations putting resources into nations with popul aces that have low returns contrast from the primary worries of the organizations in progressively develop markets. Jewel additionally at first centered around an e-meeting he joined in. As indicated by Diamond, â€Å"the results of all that deforestation incorporate loss of timber and other backwoods building materials, soil disintegration, loss of soil fruitfulness, silt stacks in the streams, loss of watershed security and subsequently of potential hydroelectric force, and diminished rainfall.1† The meeting was assembled on premise of the job that administrations should take empowering an appropriate domain that. CSR is one of the gatherings that spread a wide assortment of environmental issues associated with exchange lead. Through the gathering joined in, I have not watched any guiltless references made by the author with respect to carelessness of natural obligation. I likewise have run over organizations that the author has all the earmarks of being alluding to fruitfu l subsidizing and fixing of mischief caused to the earth. A model utilized by Diamond is the EPA superfund program that honorable biologists have bolstered to the degree of plainly meriting their fortune. Such projects have been accounted for to help people in general from the real harm that has been exacted on the earth. The essayist discusses the level or condition of the remuneration that EPA forced on nature because of the exercises completed certain companies2. Precious stone opens up the intermittent valuable projects and approaches tremendous organizations put into impact to advise organizations that dealing with the earth isn't the sole errand of the individuals. During the outcome of the oil slick, Chevron professed to be in charge of the circumstance. The author essentially uncovers the projects started for the sake of sparing out condition, and doesn't let the organizations free. A portion of the zones that mean that the essayist doesn't the organization free for its natu ral harming tasks incorporate the

Minimalism + Creativity (Announcement)

Minimalism + Creativity (Announcement) The Minimalists will bring a minimalism talk and live podcast to eight cities during the Less Coast Tour. Well be joined by a special podcast guest in each city, and together well discuss how creativity influences every aspect of our livesâ€"from our health and relationships to our work and community. Well also kick off each show with a special musical guest. Today, we are excited to announce these special guests. CORONAVIRUS UPDATE: With consideration for your safety, we have decided to postpone the Less Coast Tour until this fall to protect our audience. All tickets will automatically transfer to the new dates. Details will be published on this tour page, and via email, as soon as they are available. Read our full statement here. April 13 â€" Vancouver (tickets) Podcast: Paul Jarvis | Music: Canyon City April 14 â€" Seattle (tickets) Podcast: Noah Gundersen | Music: Canyon City April 15 â€" Portland (tickets) Podcast: Kevin Rose | Music: Canyon City April 18 â€" San Francisco (tickets) Podcast: Matt Nathanson | Music: Matt Nathanson April 20 â€" Los Angeles (tickets) Podcast: Eric Weinstein | Music: Lee DeWyze April 21 â€" San Diego (tickets) Podcast: Leo Babauta | Music: Raelee Nikole April 23 â€" Orange County (tickets) Podcast: Erwin McManus | Music: Rosi Golan April 26 â€" Sacramento (tickets) Podcast: T.K. Coleman | Music: Andy Davis Ticket options. Regular tickets include seated access to the event. VIP tickets include premium seating in the rows reserved closest to the stage, as well as access to the pre-show meet and greet. More cities. If youd like to be notified when were coming to a city near you, sign up for our email list or send a text message to our private text group. Subscribe to The Minimalists via email.

Making a Drop Down List in a DBGrid

Want to make the best data editing grid ever? Below are instructions for building a user interface for editing lookup fields Inside a DBGrid. Specifically, well be looking at how to place a DBLookupComboBox into a cell of a DBGrid. What this will do is call upon information from a data source that will be used to populate a drop-down box. To show a DBLookupComboBox inside a cell of a DBGrid, you first need to make one available at run time... Create a Lookup With a DBLookupComboBox Select the Data controls page on the Component Palette and pick a DBLookupComboBox. Drop one anywhere on the form and leave the default name of DBLookupComboBox1. It doesnt matter where you put it since most of the time, it will be invisible or floating over the grid. Add one more DataSource and DataSet component to fill the combo box with values. Drop a TDataSource (with the name DataSource2) and TAdoQuery (name it AdoQuery1) anywhere on the form. For a DBLookupComboBox to work properly, several more properties must be set; theyre the key to the lookup connection: DataSource and DataField determine the main connection. The DataField is a field into which we insert the looked-up values.ListSource is the source of the lookup dataset.KeyField identifies the field in the ListSource that must match the value of the DataField field.ListFields is the field(s) of the lookup dataset that are actually displayed in the combo. ListField can show more than one field but multiples should be separated by semicolons.You have to set large enough value for the DropDownWidth (of a ComboBox) to really see multiple columns of data.Heres how to set all the important properties from code (in the forms OnCreate event handler): procedure TForm1.FormCreate(Sender: TObject);beginwith DBLookupComboBox1 dobegin DataSource : DataSource1; // - AdoTable1 - DBGrid1 ListSource : DataSource2; DataField : AuthorEmail; // from AdoTable1 - displayed in the DBGrid KeyField : Email; ListFields : Name; Email; Visible : False; end; DataSource2.DataSet : AdoQuery1; AdoQuery1.Connection : AdoConnection1; AdoQuery1.SQL.Text : SELECT Name, Email FROM Authors; AdoQuery1.Open;end; Note: When you want to display more than one field in a DBLookupComboBox, like in the above example, you have to make sure that all columns are visible. This is done by setting the DropDownWidth property. However, youll see that initially, you have to set this to a very large value which results in dropped list being too wide (in most cases). One workaround is to set the DisplayWidth of a particular Field shown in a drop-down list. This code, placed inside the OnCreate event for the form, ensures that both the author name and its email are displayed inside the drop-down list: AdoQuery1.FieldByName(Email).DisplayWidth:10;AdoQuery1.FieldByName(Name).DisplayWidth:10;AdoQuery1.DropDownWidth:150; Whats left for us to do, is to actually make a combo box hover over a cell (when in edit mode), displaying the AuthorEmail field. First, we need to make sure the DBLookupComboBox1 is moved and sized over the cell in which the AuthorEmail field is displayed. procedure TForm1.DBGrid1DrawColumnCell (Sender: TObject; const Rect: TRect; DataCol: Integer; Column: TColumn; State: TGridDrawState);beginif (gdFocused in State) thenbeginif (Column.Field.FieldName DBLookupComboBox1.DataField) thenwith DBLookupComboBox1 do begin Left : Rect.Left DBGrid1.Left 2; Top : Rect.Top DBGrid1.Top 2; Width : Rect.Right - Rect.Left; Width : Rect.Right - Rect.Left; Height : Rect.Bottom - Rect.Top; Visible : True; end; endend; Next, when we leave the cell, we have to hide the combo box: procedure TForm1.DBGrid1ColExit(Sender: TObject);beginif DBGrid1.SelectedField.FieldName DBLookupComboBox1.DataField then DBLookupComboBox1.Visible : Falseend; Note that when in editing mode, all keystrokes are going to the DBGrids cell but we have to make sure they are sent to the DBLookupComboBox. In the case of a DBLookupComboBox, we are primarily interested in the [Tab] key; it should move the input focus to the next cell. procedure TForm1.DBGrid1KeyPress(Sender: TObject; var Key: Char);beginif (key Chr(9)) then Exit; if (DBGrid1.SelectedField.FieldName DBLookupComboBox1.DataField) thenbegin DBLookupComboBox1.SetFocus; SendMessage(DBLookupComboBox1.Handle, WM_Char, word(Key), 0); endend; When you pick an item (row) from a DBLookupComboBox, the value or the corresponding KeyField field is stored as the value of the DataField field.

Global financial crisis debt securitization - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2627 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? The present global financial crisis is the worst financial crisis world has witnessed since the great depression of the 1930s. In this essay, I attempt to critically review the role played by capitalism in causing this crisis. I shall concentrate the causal events that happened in United States of America, though there were similar events to lesser extents that happened elsewhere in the world, especially in developed countries. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Global financial crisis debt securitization" essay for you Create order Such related causal events in other countries are not unexpected, given the significance America has in the global economy, as well as the fact that comparable ideas were used by politicians and financial institutes across the globe. In the first part of the essay, a brief history of debt securitization is given, followed by various details on how the system of CDOs (collateralized debt obligations) used to function. In the latter part, the effects it had on the whole financial system is analyzed as well as what went wrong and the reasons behind it. The essay concludes by critically reviewing the whole system and linking it to the principles of Capitalism, that was found to be the root cause of this systemic failure. A brief history of debt securitization The current system of securitisation of house mortgages started in the eighties. Though many have tried to present this system as an innovative technology initiated by private companies to spread their risk, the reality is different. It was a result of the US Federal reserve in 1979 controlling growth of money to reduce inflation. Hence financial companies were forced to chase risky high return mortgages. However, the aftermath of this was that these financial companies had to transfer these risky assets from their books. Thus the system of securitization was born. Many economists realized the high potential of this system. Mortgages and other assets were grouped into various risk classes, and the prices of each of these were varied depending on the risk covered. Buyers of these packaged assets could pick the ones that matched with their risk appetite. These financial companies charged fees for the originating these loans, as well as for evaluating the risk and further charges a serv ice fees. The capital market would then sell these sliced and diced packages as CDOs (collateralized debt obligations) to fit the demands of the potential investors. This whole system was hailed as a major democratic movement because this helped many middle class people to get into home ownership. Initially, the banks and other financial institutions thought that they will not be affected by any interest rate risks. This also brought two additional possibilities. Firstly, CDOs and packaged debt assets could be easily traded anywhere in the world, and were free from any national borders. Post world wars, and the subsequent growth that happened across the developed countries (and most of developing countries), there was huge amount of investors with money, who were in search of high returns. Hence the risk appetite of these investors were high. Hence, these packaged assets were very sought after by these investors. It did not take much time before the value of these securitized debts overtook the value of US Federal debts market Minsky. Also was the advantage that these assets were denominated in dollars (1987). Secondly, the significance of banks declined in comparison to capital markets. So much that the share of banks trading financial assets declined from fifty percent to twenty five percent in the years from 1950 to 1990. There were experiments conducted by the policy makers favouring unregulated capital markets. For instance, for the banks to function profitably, they had to have a 450 points spread between the assets interest rate and liabilities interest rate. This was essential to profitably cover the profits including the return on capital, customer service costs as well as the costs to meet strict government regulations. In contrast, the capital markets operate under much relaxed rules such as exemptions from capital and reserve ratios, and hence could afford a lower spread. To overcome these tough regulations, banks started charging for the origination of these loans, but moved these loans outside their books so as to get away with the reserve requirements as well as capital requ irements. Then it was the job of the investment banks to purchase these mortgages, package them based on the risk profile into various CDOs and sell them to the investors. Various stakeholders responsible for the crisis According to Minsky (1987), these large multinational investment banks will then pay credit ratings agencies and get good credit ratings. Economists were also hired by them, to show that the earnings will be much more than the risks associates. Hence these credit rating agencies and economists, effectively acted as if they were credit enhancers, helping these investment banks by certifying that the potential risk of default on these subprime mortgages were not too different from that of other traditional mortgages, thus helping these CDOs to get investment grade rating that are looked upon by pension and insurance fund managers. Also, other enhancements such as early repayment penalty and guaranteed buybacks in case of exceedingly large number of foreclosures and defaults, were added to these packages. The buybacks later became significant because when the financial crisis happened, these buyback guarantees came to haunt these backs, because the risk was transferred back to these ban ks. Also, these securities were insured by companies such as CFIG, AMBAC, MBIA, FGIC Corp etc. These investment banks would have found it extremely difficult to sell these securities had there been no good credit ratings and no affordable insurance (Gutscher and Richard 2007). When the financial crisis started, ratings for these very insurers got degraded, thereby affecting the securities they had insured. One of the root cause of the problem can be pinned down to the incentive structure that was in place. After the 2000 stock market crash, alternate profit avenues were in demand from the investors. Because the Fed followed a low interest rate regime, the conventional markets did not present them the required returns. They wanted to chase high return high risk investments. Also, the brokers got excellent incentives for persuading the mortgage borrowers to agree to extremely adverse terms and conditions, in the process increasing the securities value. Also, hybrid variety of ARMs were also promoted. These risky mortgages were even approved by Greenspan, the Fed Chairman. Some studies reveal that out of the total subprime loans of $2.5 trillion performed, most borrowers got a bad deal than they were eligible for. Wrong incentives and credit enhancers For instance, many borrowers with good credit scores who would have been eligible for traditional loans, were persuaded to take these high risk sub-prime mortgages. Most of them were at least eligible for better terms and conditions. The root cause of this problem was the incentive plans which rewarded these brokers immensely (in comparison to traditional loans) for promoting these high interest high risky loans (Simon and Brooks, 2007). Brokers and originators also were not persuaded to ensure proper documentation and the borrowers capability to repay these mortgages, because they did not have to worry since the originators will not be holding on to these mortgages. This was like an assembly line in which the brokers and banks were profiting by the income they got from fees and service charges, and not from interest rate spread. Hence they were rewarded more by the quantity of mortgages they promoted. Thus in reality, most of these affordable mortgages werent what they promised, because when the borrower had to reset these loans, they had to pay service charges for various agents and early repayment penalties. The bankruptcy laws made it almost impossible for the borrowers to escape from the mortgage debt. These laws were passed by the US Congress, and it acted as another form of credit enhancer to these invest banks, who later sold these assets. Comparison with conventional banking Hence, the whole package of these CDOs with all these incentives and enhancements made it extremely easy for the investors to buy these very risky assets without much reluctance. While traditional banks stressed a lot on the features of the mortgage borrower (age, assets, income, profession, credit history etc), this new system meant that there was infinite amount of money available to invest in these extremely risky CDOs, with no incentive to assess the repayment ability of these borrowers. Thus extremely risky debts were grouped and divided into different groups again, and were sold to various investors, who bought them based on their risk appetite. As with any debt, the senior tranche will be the first priority for repayment, and the junior tranche only after the seniors are paid. However, it is almost astonishing to notice that some of these junior tranches were grouped again and again, thereby converting some of those extremely risky debts as highly rated investment-grade senior debt. All this made the whole system extremely fragile. High leverage ratios This new system of securitization into CDOs also increased the leverage ratios, and it was not uncommon to see leverage ratios as high as fifteen-to-one or even more. The hedge funds and other investors put only a small amount of their own capital into these securities. Thus the economic stability promoted creativity and innovations, however by stretching and increasing the leverage ratios and easy availability of credit, making the whole system inherently unstable and fragile. What encouraged the financial companies to increase leverage ratios is that for whatever expected losses, ROE (return on equity) is raised by higher and higher leverage ratios. This was fuelled by the fact that the house prices or real estate prices (the underlying assets in this case) kept on increasing because of demand fuelled by this easy availability of credit, thus the new loan amounts kept increasing and further encouraging financial companies to keep on increasing the leverage ratios (both loan amount- to-borrower income and loan amount-to-loan value. The logic (or assumption) used was that these houses can be either sold or refinanced later at a much higher value if at all any unexpected trouble occurred. Minsky stated that the capital markets and the whole system will undergo three stages: 1.) hedge stage 2.) speculative stage and finally 3.) Ponzi Stage. All these stages required the price of these underlying assets to appreciate in order to confirm it. Hence, owing to this virtuous cycle, it was very hard to prevent the Ponzi stage from happening. Wrong assumptions According to Chancellor (2007), the risk management methodologies used in modern times makes use of data on historical volatility, as a substitute or alternative to risk. If volatility declines, subsequently the risk is also supposed to decline, thus encouraging financial companies to enhance the leverage ratios. Bernanke in 2004 described the period as great moderation, which basically suggested that since volatility is permanently less, it was encouraged to have higher leverage ratios. Thus, Chancellor states that a fund (eg: hedge fund) with just pound;1 million of its own funds was allowed to have a leverage of as high as pound;85 million of CDOs, an astonishing 85 to 1 leverage ratio! Problems with the system The newly formulated system of debt securitization was very little regulated by policy, and was not flexible enough to change as things went bad. Rather than being a highly controlled industry, housing finance was very much a highly unsupervised, speculative and highly leveraged industry. The whole Ponzi scheme will stop only when asset prices declined or stopped rising, or if interest rates rose. Both of these scenarios were almost impossible to avoid, because they were both correlated dynamically since Federal rate increases will result in a decline in speculation, and will ease the increasing housing prices and will result in a rising risk spreads. The aftermath What happened after the start of this crisis were completely unexpected. The losses on these highly risky highly leveraged sub-prime surpassed expectations which were all based on historical data. This resulted in the prices of asset prices to decline drastically, creating a panic across the markets. Problems in one market spread rapidly and increasingly to other markets, which includes the commercial paper, mutual funds and money markets. The commercial banks were now extremely risk averse, and did not even lend for small time periods. Because of the very high leverage ratios, extremely huge losses were suffered by money managers, many times much more than their capital. They had to quickly respond to this crisis, and they did it by deleveraging by selling the assets on their books, which inevitably put a lot of negative pressure on those assets prices. The rippling effect Following the subprime mortgage market collapse, the panic and qualms broadened to similar and dissimilar asset-collateral security markets, which included municipal bond and real estate bond markets. Markets realized the extent and significance of the systemic faults with the system, particularly that of the credit rating companies credit ratings. The markets also understood, though very late, that insurers would have tremendous losses, if all these asset-backed securities were riskier than understood earlier. This resulted in the severe downgrading of these insurers credit ratings. Since the financial position of these insurers became extremely bad, the assets those insurers had insured became valueless thus the security and bond ratings were severely downgraded. In a lot of instances, to make things even worse and regrettably, the worst securities were also held by these investment banks, and had either held positions in some of these insurers, or had guaranteed taking back these mortgages. To improve the terrible condition the capital markets and the global financial markets were in, the United States government had to come out with massive bail outs of its various bank and insurance companies. Some of them went bankrupt, but some of them were too big for them to be allowed to fall. Till Jan 2009, almost one trillion dollars of bad debt was completely written off by those financial institutions combined, assisted mostly by those government bailouts. Conclusion Till 2009 January, the US Treasury had provided almost four hundred billion dollars of assistance, mostly by purchasing the assets, and in certain cases taking equity positions. The actual cost of supporting the financial system is expected to be much more, at least some trillions of dollars. It is worth noting that the whole securitized debt market was only around ten trillion, and the share of the sub-prime mortgages were more than 2.5 trillion dollars. From all these facts explained above, one thing is evident and clear. The series of events that caused this financial crisis would not have happened had the markets been more regulated, and most importantly, had the policy makers not believed and followed the tenets of capitalism so blindly. The extremely heavy losses and bankruptcies that have happened, and those that are yet to happen are not just the case of bad housing loans offered to poor home loan borrowers for them to purchase luxury manors which they did not have the capaci ty to repay. But instead, this is clearly a case of failure of the so called neo-liberal capitalism, which believed in unregulated markets, markets will decide for itself what is good for it, regulation means bad for businesses and economy, Its all about creating shareholder value etc. There has been a systemic failure, and sadly those people who were responsible for the whole sequence of events have gone scot-free, and the millions who are terribly affected are the very same low-income or middle class people (including pension funds and other social security funds), who were deceived by those responsible for it all. It is high time that governments who come to power repossess finance from the completely unregulated capital markets, and bring in necessary regulations to make the system more equitable and stable. This will also help bring some order back to the system, and regain some control from the Wall Street 6.

Position Argument on Medical Marijuana Free Essays

There seems to be a constant need to provide conflict in our society. Everywhere you turn you will find articles fighting against the legalization of medical marijuana, which in this state, is already legal. What an interesting concept having to continue to defend the legality and why it should be legal in the first place. We will write a custom essay sample on Position Argument on Medical Marijuana or any similar topic only for you Order Now Heaven forbid we have something that actually helps people tolerate the pain they have to constantly live with. Why would we want to give them some relief? We are actually putting some income back into the economy instead of throwing it away to some criminal or helping the Mexican Cartel make a profit. Now why in the world would we want to do that? These are the questions that come to my mind when I hear about everything going on with the cannabis issue. Let’s get down to some brass tactics as they say on everything that is being said against this issue. First off you hear, it is a gateway drug to addictive drugs like cocaine and heroin. Well that is funny, because if you survey the people hooked on cocaine and heroin, in most instances you will find that they actually abused beer and alcohol first. They did not start with marijuana. This is according to polls taken by a number of organizations looking into the addictiveness of this type of pain killer. There is no evidence that marijuana is addictive. People like to use marijuana because it makes them feel good. Now it has been proven to be an effective pain killer. What is the problem then? Look at all the people sitting in jail right now for using marijuana or trying to distribute marijuana. Our tax dollars pay for all these people sitting in jail for using marijuana simply because our government went and listed it as a Schedule 1 drug way back in the 1950’s. Even though it has been proven that it is not addictive and should not be listed this way-we can’t seem to get them to change this. The only reason it seems that this isn’t being done is because the pharmaceutical companies have our politicians and government in their back pocket. They support them financially. Well that, of course, is way more important than maybe providing someone with pain relief. Our economy is in the toilet right now. I’m just thinking about how many new jobs would become available if we were opening medical marijuana dispensaries all over the country. That doesn’t ven include the growers and caregivers that would now have an income coming in. Instead, they continue to keep marijuana illegal in most states. How many farmers could continue to stay in business if they could legally grow marijuana as a crop for sale? It just doesn’t make any sense when you look at all the people on unemployment or who have lost everything because there just isn’t enough work out there. Yet, there is millions and millions of dollars spent every year on illegal marijuana. There is also millions and millions of dollars every year spent on trying to stop the drug cartels bringing in marijuana for illegal sales. Then there are millions and millions of dollars spent every year on putting people in jail and maintaining them for the use or sale of marijuana. All of this money going out and no profit coming in. Who is making the profit? The drug cartels make the profits. What do they do for us? Well, let’s see, they kill and exploit people. There was a report that said 6,000 people were murdered by the cartels last year, many of them were innocent children, police officers, reporters and politicians. Shouldn’t we spend our money legally and help the people of our country earn a living, instead of helping these drug cartels make a profit. What do you think? Now we have to touch on the issue that it isn’t a medical pain killer. Where do people think â€Å"Marinol†, the product used to assist cancer patients, came from? It uses THC which is derived from the marijuana plant. The FDA approved this drug. Did you know that the use of this drug can cause hallucinations? Smoking a â€Å"joint† doesn’t do that. Yet they just don’t want to approve marijuana itself. Whose pocket do you think they are being held by? The excuses are that it is smoked not ingested. Who cares? If it relieves pain by the natural use of this plant, then let us use it! Especially since they are not finding any terrible side effects like they do with most of the other pain killers people are addicted to like vicadin and methadone. What about the cocaine and morphine that is prescribed by many doctors? Do you know the history of marijuana? It goes back to 2737 B. C. where an emperor in China used marijuana for treatments of gout, malaria and poor memory. Ancient cultures in Egypt, Rome, Greece, Asia, the Middle East, Africa and India had many uses for marijuana. It was used for religious purposes, stress and pain relief. We actually used marijuana hemp seeds and roots for inflamed skin and V. D. in the late 18th century according to our American history. It became illegal, except for medical use, by â€Å"The Marihuana Tax Act of 1937† and of course you had to pay a tax to use it. It only became illegal in these United States in the 1950’s when the FDA listed it as a Schedule 1 substance. This means it is suppose to be a high value for abuse with no medical value at all. Research has proven so differently. There have been many attempts to change this by various reform groups over the past 30 years but the FDA still has not responded. It is amazing, that our own federal government grew supplied a number of medical patients with medical marijuana in 1978. Why is this even an issue now? There are more deaths from alcohol or tobacco use than ever reported by use of marijuana. Alcohol abuse can cause death to the user or unfortunately to the innocent people that end up in a car crash with the abuser. Alcohol abuser’s can end up with a destroyed liver. Alcohol abuse is usually the main cause of domestic violence acts. Yet, alcohol is legal. How many of these types of incidents have you heard of from marijuana use? You’ve heard of violence from cocaine and heroin users, but marijuana, I think not. Now we go to tobacco. Addictive, yes highly, just ask the millions of people that can’t quit but would love to. How healthy is this? You hear all the time of the problems caused by â€Å"second hand† smoke. That isn’t even the problems caused for the actual smoker. Cancer and breathing disorders are on the top of the list of disease caused by the use of tobacco. Again, this is legal. Does this make any sense to you? Marijuana does not cause violence, addiction, death, cancer or breathing disorders. Yet, it is an illegal drug? It should not even be a drug. It should be classified the same as tobacco and alcohol at the least or put with the list of â€Å"herbal† remedies used today. After all it is a plant. Personally, I believe there seems to be too much controversy over this subject. Just legalize it and be done with it. Now people have jobs and patients have an alternative pain medicine to use. Put it in the category it belongs. Give us the money the drug cartels get and help put our economy back on its feet. Isn’t this what living the American Dream is all about anyways? How to cite Position Argument on Medical Marijuana, Essays

American History Essay Sample free essay sample

Introduction The westbound motion by the different subdivisions of the American society was motivated by different push and pull factors. For the husbandmans. the good dirts of the western frontier pulled them towards the West. while for the land-hungry Virginians. this hungriness drove them down the rivers into Carolina. For the people in Massachusetts. the hunt for new dirts took them towards Pennsylvania and New York. As for the ranchers. it is the enticement of the grass that took them west. For whatever ground the people moved west. the Westward enlargement was really of import in the economic history of the United States. ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www. Britannica. com ) The west ward enlargement was accelerated by the Louisiana Purchase. which saw America get land towards the West of its district from France. The purchase of Louisiana had a pronounced impact on the size of the United States. In buying Louisiana. with a entire country of 828. We will write a custom essay sample on American History Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 000 square stat mis. America about doubled its land mass. Furthermore. Louisiana was endowed with legion natural resources that greatly increased the wealth of the United States. . ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www. Britannica. com ) Immigration The in-migration to the United States reached its extremum in the period between 1940 and 1920. This clip saw the reaching of some about 37 million immigrants. The records indicate that at the clip. about 6 million Germans. 4. 5 million Irish. and 4. 75 Italians came. In add-on. during the same period. 4. 2 million people from England. Scotland and Wales streamed in. as a similar figure from the Austro-Hungarian Empire set in. This was non all. some 2. 3 million Scandinavians and 3. 3 million Russians were besides to follow. This drastically changed the demographics of the United States. for illustration. in 1840. the population increased from 550. 000 to 1. 8 million as a consequence of the in-migration. In the major metropoliss. by 1910. and over half of the population was made up of immigrants and their households. . ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www. Britannica. com ) The immigrants provided inexpensive labour for the industries and constituted the chief work force in the steel Millss. meat packing workss. and the garment trade. In Milwaukee. the population increased drastically between 1850 and 1890. with big Numberss of Polish and Eastern European immigrants found working in turn overing Millss and blast furnaces. . ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www. Britannica. com ) Most of the immigrants retained their national individualities in footings of faith. civilization. and celebrated their cultural vacations ; which provoked anti- immigrant sentiments among the indigens. In the West seashore. Chinese immigrants flocked in big Numberss. motivating Congress to go through the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882. In the 1890s. Congress passed other statute law to stem the inflow of polygamists. contract labourers and people with diseases. Some local groups such as the American Protective Association of 1887 urged for limitations on in-migration. . ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www. Britannica. com ) However. it is during this period that the United States became an industrial human dynamo. taking in meatpacking. timber production. and steel production. in add-on to gold. Ag and coal excavation. The state was to see a roar in the industrial growing and graduated table of production. . ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www. Britannica. com ) Regional Differences and Sectionalism Each part of the United States developed different societal and economic systems. The North was sing the Market Revolution whereby most economic activities were based on commercial agribusiness and the growing of metropoliss and industry. It was bring forthing merchandises like fabrics and vesture. lumber and machinery. On the other manus. the South remained tied to plantation agribusiness that depended on slave labour and international markets. ( Littlefield. Douglas R. 1983 ) Following the developments and regional differences experienced by different parts of the United States. many Americans remained divided along regional. cultural and category lines. The Southerners were increasing their dependance on slave labour. particularly with the rise in the cotton civilization. The adult females in the South remained disfranchised. many Americans were get downing to happen themselves among the turning figure of landless pay labourers. and with the in-migration. cultural and spiritual differences started to emerge. Sectionalism became the cardinal factor in discouraging where substructure like roads and canals would be built. The struggles were non merely geographical in nature. but besides took another dimension. characterized by switching aversions among assorted urban and rural involvements. ( Mark M. S. . 2001 ) The patricians and the new middle class were united in their sentiment about the Northern laboring categories. every bit good as their unfavorable judgment of the slave keeping south part. The northern elite on the other manus. consisting of the blue Boston Brahmins and the reform minded emancipationists and capitalists believed in the virtuousnesss of breeding and highbrow civilization. To them. the handiness of free labour and virtuous political democracy were most of import. ( Mark M. S. . 2001 ) However. the northern elite besides had some dissensions among themselves. and this was apparent in the political propensities. In general nevertheless. the Northerners were of the strong belief that bondage posed a grave danger to the hereafter of the United States. In the South. the southern elites were besides of assorted kinds. The industrialists. merchandisers and the urban in-between category were united in their resistance to the more influential plantation owner category. ( Mark M. S. . 2001 ) In the terminal. following the northern unfavorable judgment of the south’s bondage policy. the Southerners were forced to hold. since they were linked through their involvements and affinity in back uping the bondage. As such. bondage was a coalescent force for the South. and helped to cement provincialism ( Littlefield. Douglas R. 1983 ) The North wanted a protectionist policy that would protect their commercial involvements and preferred a countrywide trade policy that would function their involvements. The South on the other manus cared small about protectionist policies against foreign bearers and alternatively preferred as many transportation options as possible. This put a strain on the nation’s foreign policy because of the different involvements. Decision The events of the 19ThursdayCentury America saw the turning point in American history. with the immense addition in the population occasioned by the immense in-migration. the Industrial Revolution. and the provincialism that was to subsequently emerge as a consequence of the regional differences in footings of economic system. Up to now. the differences are yet to be to the full resolved. The westbound enlargement opened up America to new chances that helped in the growing of their economic system. The in-migration has shaped America as the land of diverseness of civilizations and political orientations. which have been merged to organize one state. Mentions hypertext transfer protocol: //www. Britannica. com: Accessed on 13ThursdayDecember 2007 Littlefield. Douglas R. ( 1983 ) â€Å"Maryland Sectionalism and the Development of the Potomac Route to the West. 1768-1826. † The Maryland Historian 14: pp 31-52 Mark M. S. ( 2001 ) â€Å"Listening to Nineteenth-Century America† University of North Carolina Press

Do It Publicly Essays - Murder Of Scott Amedure,

Do It Publicly With talk shows ruling day-time television, people are left with little choice but to watch this humiliating form of entertainment. Turn the television on in the afternoon and you will find a large variety of talk shows to choose from. "Maybe we have become a nation addicted to hearing our neighbors' seamy personal problems"(You 40). Personally, I feel it is both the lack of choice and the attraction to other peoples problems. Many of the topics on talk shows are degrading to our society. If person came to America for the first time and watched television, they would probably see a talk show. The model a talk show would give of American society is horrifying. For example, a common talk show topic is teens having multiple sex partners at young ages. However, not all teens are sexually active at such a young age. For this reason talk shows are misleading not only to foreigners but to children and young adults who are learning about morals and our society. In a letter to the corporate CEO's distributing these programs, William Bennett and Senator Joseph Lieberman asked: "Would you want your young children to view a program showcasing the sexual adventures of a 14-year-old girl who married her 71-year-old foster father"(Flint and Wharton). To those who do not tune into these shows this discription may sound like an exaggeration; however, it is not. This is exactly the type of topics on some shows. Not only are half the shows ridiculous with topics of deceit, revenge and "extreme behavior", but some of them are false(Flint and Wharton). On the Jerry Springer Show a Canadian comedy troupe went on the show and created a story. The story was that one of the men had an affair with his baby-sitter. After the show appeared on television, the troupe members went to the press saying how they deceived the program and its audience(You 52). Some people will do anything to be on television. Some shows trick people into situations. The Jenny Jones show has had several episode entitled "Secret Crush". In these episode secret admirers are revealed to her guests. In some cases her guests are displeased with their secret admirer. I can remember one episode that I watched. A woman was surprised by a man who had a secret crush on her. She was very disturbed when she realized who he was. She proceeded to tell Jenny that this man was insane and was pursuing her. This could have been avoided if the woman was t old who the secret admirer was before the show. However, if this was done the show would not be as interesting. In another incident, one of Jenny's guests confronted a secert crush, and it led to tragedy. Amedure, a male guest had a crush on Johnathan Schmitz, another male. Amedure surprised Schmitz with his feelings on the show; however, Schmitz was expecting a woman, from the impression he was given by the shows producers. Schmitz said he was publicly embarrassed when Amedure revealed on national television that he had a "gay crush" on him. After the show Jonathan Schmitz was charged with the murder of Amedure. Schmitz shot Amedure and killed him(You 52). In some shows the guests are not informed of the topic, and they end up being embarrassed by a ridiculous topic. This is wrong because these people with their loved ones or friends sometimes involved are mislead and sometimes humiliated on national television by the producers. Even though the guests agree to appear on the shows because they wanted to, some regret it after the show (You 40). Therefore, we can not pose the guests as helpless victims because they are adults. Also, if they have seen a talk show before they went on one, they would know what they were getting themselves into. In my opinion there are just too many talk shows. According to Larry Pollock there are 32 talk shows on television right now(Flint and Wharton). There are a few talk shows that are conscientious and have very interesting and educational topics. For example Oprah Winfrey and Maury Povich are two shows that have many rewarding topics such as family reunions. They also have educational

Word Choice Choose vs. Chose - Get Writing Tips with Proofed!

Word Choice Choose vs. Chose - Get Writing Tips with Proofed! Word Choice: Choose vs. Chose The difference between the present and past is important. After all, you’d never get anything done if you couldn’t tell the difference between today and yesterday. Or perhaps you’d think you’d already done it†¦ The point is that it’s confusing, which is also true if you mix up â€Å"choose† and â€Å"chose.† These are variations of the same word. â€Å"Choose† is a present tense verb; â€Å"chose† is a past tense verb. But how should you use them? Let us explain. Choose (Simple Present Tense) To â€Å"choose† (pronounced to rhyme with â€Å"shoes†) something is to make a decision. Since this is a simple present tense verb, we typically use it for generalizations and current actions: Many people choose to wear a hat in the summer. Many cacti, too. â€Å"Choose† can also be combined with â€Å"will† in the simple future tense or â€Å"would† to express a hypothetical: I will choose what to wear before I go out. If I were you, I would choose now. The first sentence here expresses an intention in the future simple tense. The second is a hypothetical scenario about making a choice. But in both cases, â€Å"choose† is the correct term. Chose (Simple Past Tense) If a decision has already been made, the word you’ll need is â€Å"chose† (pronounced to rhyme with â€Å"nose†). This is the simple past tense form of this word. For instance: When I saw the rain, I chose not to go out. Here, for example, the speaker is talking about a past decision. Choosing and Chosen (Present and Past Participles) There are two more variations of this word: the present participle â€Å"choosing† and the past participle â€Å"chosen.† We use present participles in the continuous (or progressive) tenses to describe an action that occurs over a period of time. For instance, we might say: I am choosing what to wear for the interview. This sentence uses the present continuous â€Å"am choosing what to wear† to show that a decision is currently being made. With a tie like this, I know Ill get the job! Past participles, meanwhile, are used in the perfect tenses. For example: She had chosen what to wear, but then she decided to stay home instead. Here, the past perfect â€Å"had chosen† shows a decision was made in the past (i.e., what to wear) before something else happened (i.e., deciding to stay home). Choose or Chose? The participle forms above are easier to remember because they look quite different written down, but it’s easy to mix up â€Å"choose† and â€Å"chose† if you’re not careful (even if it is just a typo). Our main tip is to proofread your work thoroughly (or ask a professional to do it). Keep an eye out for these words and make sure that each one is the correct tense for the sentence. Remember: Choose = Simple present tense Chose = Simple past tense

Argumentative Research paper on being AGAINST Standardized Testing of

Argumentative on being AGAINST Standardized Testing of Students - Research Paper Example These reasons, however, do not outweigh the severe misconceptions that standardized tests often project, due to their flawed nature. Since 1914, which was when standardized I.Q. tests convinced the world that America was a ‘Nation of Morons’, this type of tests has been realized for its often misguiding nature (Gould, pp. 349-352). One of the biggest flaws with standardized testing is how little importance this test gives to individuality. Standardized tests are used for several purposes; from measuring the intelligence level of human beings to screening out applicants for an available job. Such tests are often set in a predictable pattern, with multiple-choice questions and one-word answers (Phelps, pp. 23-54). These tests do not leave room for creativity, nor do they allow the test-taker to choose beyond the choices given in the paper. Resultantly, they are set to measure only a few specific characteristics, while disregarding other possibly important ones (Sacks, pp. 150-165). An Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.) test, which contains difficult mathematical problems, for instance, will only measure an applicant’s mathematical I.Q., and judge the applicants with a high mathematical I.Q. as the most intelligent. Meanwhile, applicants who may not have a strong mathematical capability will be judged less intel ligent, even if they have high social or artistic I.Q.s, which the test failed to measure. Moreover, this pattern of testing also implies that the applicants are needed to be standardized and generic themselves, with no need for individuality (Kuncel, Hezlett, and Ones, pp 148-161). It awards instead, the applicants who have managed to transform into clones of the standard. This means that this type of testing is not advisable for instances where the applicant’s creativity is in question. For example, in the case of an architectural school,

Maritime security Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Maritime security - Coursework Example The Navy has been maintaining the maritime security until recently when their activities are being downsized by the introduction of Private Maritime Organizations. Factors such as reduced spending on the military by armed forces in developed nations, availability of fewer people to enlist and smaller forces available for counter-piracy. In addition, increased use of military robots (UUVs, UAVs, USvs), concentrated in the Asia Pacific region and increased reliance on private maritime security companies to defend themselves will reduce the role and capabilities of the military in the future (Klein 2011, p. 23). The insecurities in the marine have increased in this current century more than the other centuries because of the technological advancement. Hijackers have advanced the weapons that they used to improve their piracy works. The Private maritime operations were seen to adapt quickly to having modern weapons to fight the terrorists and the pirates. It is one of the reasons as to why it has attracted many employers along the coast. For example, the West Africa region has suffered theft, and it has increased since 1990s. The hijacking of cargo is intense in the Bight of Benin in Lagos, Ivory Coast, and Gabon. The hijackers are usually targeting the ships that have petroleum goods and sell the stolen petroleum products at low prices. Kidnapping activities are intense to the South of the Niger Delta Region, in Bight of Bonny. Maritime security operations should be put in place so that the West region can be transporting the petroleum safely to the market. Nigeria’s economy depends on the oil sales (Klein 2011, p. 24). Therefore, there is much need to enhance security in the marine area to ensure safety and to reduce casualties in case is of an attack. Today, the PMOs are at the forefrontofgiving security to the navigators and to

The History Of Virtualization Information Technology Essay

The History Of Virtualization Information Technology Essay Introduction Virtualization is one of the hottest innovations in the Information Technology field, with proven benefits that propel organizations to strategize for rapid planning and implementation of virtualization. As with any new technology, managers must be careful to analyze how that technology would best fit in their organization. In this document, we will provide an overview of virtualization to help shed light on this quickly evolving technology. History of Virtualization Virtualization is Brand New Again! Although virtualization seems to be a hot new cutting edge technology, IBM originally used it on their mainframes in the 1960s. The IBM 360/67 running the CP/CMS system used virtualization as an approach to time sharing. Each user would run their own 360 machine. Storage was partitioned into virtual disks called P-Disks for each user. Mainframe virtualization remained popular through the 1970s. During the 1980s and 1990s, virtualization kind of disappeared. During the 1980s, there were a couple of products made for Intel PCs. Simultask and Merger/386, both developed by Locus Computing Corporation, would run MS-DOS as guest operating systems. In 1988, Insignia Solutions released Soft PC which ran DOS on Sun and Macintosh platforms. The late 1990s would usher in the new wave of virtualization. In 1997, Connectix would release Virtual PC for the Macintosh. Later, Connectix would release a version for the Windows and subsequently be bought by Microsoft in 2003. In 1999, VMware would introduce its entry into virtualization. In the last decade, every major player in servers has integrated virtualization into their offerings. In addition to VMware and Microsoft, Sun, Veritas, and HP would all acquire virtualization technology. How Does Virtualization Work? In the enterprise IT world, servers are necessary to do many jobs. Traditionally each machine only does one job, and sometimes many servers are given the same job. The reason behind this is to keep hardware and software problems on one machine from causing problems for several programs. There are several problems with this approach however. The first problem is that it doesnt take advantage of modern server computers processing power.[11] Most servers only use a small percentage of their overall processing capabilities. The other problem is that the servers begin to take up a lot of physical space as the enterprise network grows larger and more complex. Data centers might become overcrowded with racks of servers consuming a lot of power and generating heat. Server virtualization tries to fix both of these problems in one fell swoop.[16] Server virtualization uses specially designed software in which an administrator can convert one physical server into multiple virtual machines. Each virtual server acts as a unique physical device that is capable of running its own operating system. Until recent technological developments, the only way to create a virtual server was to design special software to trick a servers CPU into providing processing power for several virtual machines. Today, however, processor manufacturers such as Intel and AMD offer processors with the capability of supporting virtual servers already built in. In the virtualized environment, the hardware doesnt create the virtual servers. Network administrators or engineers still need to create them using the right software. [11] In the world of information technology, server virtualization is still a hot topic. Still considered a new technology, several companies offer different approaches to server virtualization. There are three ways to create virtual servers; full virtualization, para-virtualization, and OS-level virtualization. In all three variations there are a few common traits. The physical server is always called the host. The virtual servers are called guests. The virtual servers all behave as if they were physical machines. However, in each of the different methods uses a different approach to allocating the physical server resources to virtual server needs. [11] Full Virtualization The full virtualization method uses software called a hypervisor. This hypervisor works directly with the physical servers CPU and disk space. It performs as the stage for the virtual servers operating system. This keeps each server completely autonomous and unconscious of the other servers running on the same physical machine. If necessary, the virtual servers can be running on different operating system software like Linux and/or Windows. The hypervisor also watches the physical servers resources. It relays resources from the physical machine to the appropriate virtual server as the virtual servers run their applications. Finally, because hypervisors have their own processing needs, the physical server must reserve some processing power and resources to run the hypervisor application. If not done properly, this can affect the overall performance and slow down applications. [11] Para-Virtualization Unlike the full virtualization method, the para-virtualization approach allows the guest servers to be aware of one another. Because, each operating system in the virtual servers is conscious of the demands being placed on the physical server by the other guests, the Para-virtualization hypervisor doesnt require as much processing power to oversee the guest operating systems. In this way the entire system works together as a unified organization. [11] OS-Level Virtualization The OS-level virtualization approach doesnt use a hypervisor at all. The virtualization capability is part of the host OS, instead. The host OS executes all of the functions of a fully virtualized hypervisor. Because the OS-level operates without the hypervisor, it limits all of the virtual servers to one operating system where the other two approaches allow for different OS usage on the virtual servers. The OS-level approach is known as the homogeneous environment because all of the guest operating systems must be the same. [11] With three different approaches to virtualization, the question remains as to which method is the best. This is where a complete understanding of enterprise and network requirements is imperative. If the enterprises physical servers all run on the same OS, then the OS-level approach might be the best solution. It tends to be faster and more efficient than the others. However, if the physical servers are running on several different operating systems, para-virtualization or full virtualization might be better approaches. Virtualization Standards With the ever-increasing adoption of virtualization, there are very few standards that actually reign as prevalent in this technology. As the migration to virtualization grows, so does the need for open industry standards. This is why the work on virtualization is viewed by several industry observers as a giant step in the right direction. The Distributed Management Task Force (DMTF) currently promotes standards for virtualization management to help industry suppliers implement compliant, interoperable virtualization management solutions. The strongest standard to be created for this technology was the Standardization of Management in a Virtualized Environment. It was accomplished by a team who builds on standards already in place. This standard lowers the IT learning curve and complexity for vendors implementing this support in their management solutions. Its ease-of-use makes this standard successful. The new standard recognizes supported virtualization management capabilities, including the ability to: discover inventory virtual computer systems manage lifecycle of virtual computer systems create/modify/delete virtual resources monitor virtual systems for health and performance Virtualization standards are not suffering as a result of poor development but rather because of the common IT challenge involved in pleasing all users. Until virtualization is standardized, network professionals must continue to meet these challenges within a dynamic data center. For example, before the relationship between Cisco and VMWare was established Ciscos Data Center 3.0 was best described as scrawny. 150 million dollars later, Cisco was able to establish a successful integration that allows the VFrame to load VMware ESX Server onto bare-metal computer hardware something that previously could only be done with Windows and Linux and configure the network and storage connections that ESX required. In addition, Microsoft made pledges only in the Web services arena, where it faces tougher open standards competition. The companys Open Specification Promise allows every individual and organization in the world to make use of Virtual Hard Disk Image Format forever, Microsoft said in a statement. VHD allows the packaging of an application with that applications Windows operating system. Several such combinations, each in its own virtual machine, can run on a single piece of hardware. The future standard of virtualization is in Open Virtual machine Format (OVF). OVF doesnt aim to replace the pre-existing formats, but instead ties them together in a standard-based XML package that contains all the necessary installation and configuration parameters. This, in theory, will allow any virtualization platform (that implements the standard) to run the virtual machines. OVF will set some safeguards as well. The format will permit integrity checking of the VMs to ensure they have not been tampered with after the package was produced. Virtualization in the Enterprise Microsofts Approach (Toms needs references) Virtualization is an approach to deploying computing resources that isolates different layers-hardware, software, data, networks, storage-from each other. Typically today, an operating system is installed directly onto a computers hardware. Applications are installed directly onto the operating system. The interface is presented through a display connected directly to the local machine. Altering one layer often affects the others, making changes difficult to implement. By using software to isolate these layers from each other, virtualization makes it easier to implement changes. The result is simplified management, more efficient use of IT resources, and the flexibility to provide the right computing resources, when and where they are needed. Bob Muglia, Senior Vice President, Server and Tools Business, Microsoft Corporation The typical discussions of virtualization focus on server hardware virtualization (which will be discussed later in this article). However, there is more to virtualization than just server virtualization. This section presents Microsofts virtualization strategy. By looking at Microsofts virtualization strategy, we can see other areas, beside server virtualization, where virtualization can be used in the enterprise infrastructure. Server Virtualization Windows Server 2008 Hyper-V and Microsoft Virtual Server 2005 R2 In Server virtualization, one physical server is made to appear as multiple servers. Microsoft has two products for virtual servers. Microsoft Virtual Server 2005 R2 was made to run on Windows Server 2003. The current product is Windows Server 2008 Hyper-V, which will only run on 64-bit versions of Windows Server 2008. Both products are considered hypervisors, a term coined by IBM in 1972. A hypervisor is the platform that enables multiple operating systems to run on a single physical computer. Microsoft Virtual Server is considered a Type 2 hypervisor. A Type 2 hypervisor runs within the host computers operating system. Hyper-V is considered a Type 1 hypervisor, also called a bare-metal hypervisor. Type 1 hypervisors run directly on the physical hardware (bare metal) of the host computer. A virtual machine; whether we are talking about Microsoft, VMWare, Citrix, or Parallels; basically consists of two files, a configuration file and a virtual hard drive file. This is true for desktop virtualization as well. For Hyper-V, there is a .vmc file for the virtual machine configuration and a .vhd file for the virtual hard drive. The virtual hard drive holds the OS and data for the virtual server. Business continuity can be enhanced by using virtual servers. Microsofts System Center Virtual Machine Manager allows an administrator to move a virtual machine to another physical host without the end users realizing it. With this feature, maintenance can be carried out without bringing the servers down. Failover clustering between servers can also be enabled. This means that should a virtual server fail, another virtual server could take over, providing a disaster recovery solution. Testing and development is enhanced through the use of Hyper-V. Virtual server test systems that duplicate the production systems are used to test code. In UCFs Office of Undergraduate Studies, a virtual Windows 2003 server is used to test new web sites and PHP code. The virtual server and its physical production counterpart have the exact same software installed, to allow programmers and designers to check their web applications before releasing them to the public. By consolidating multiple servers to run on fewer physical servers, cost saving may be found in lower cooling and electricity needs, lower hardware needs, and less physical space to house the data center. Server consolidation is also a key technology for Green computing initiatives. Computer resources are also optimized, for example CPUs will see less idle time. Server virtualization also maximizes licensing. For example, purchasing one Microsoft Server Enterprise license will allow you to run four virtual servers using the same license. Desktop Virtualization Microsoft Virtual Desktop Infrastructure (VDI) and Microsoft Enterprise Desktop Virtualization (MED-V) Desktop virtualization is very similar to server virtualization. A client operating system, such as Windows 7, is used to run a guest operating system, such as Windows XP. This is usually done to support applications or hardware not supported in the current operating system (This is why Microsoft included Windows XP mode in versions of Windows 7). Microsofts Virtual PC is the foundation for this desktop virtualization. Virtual PC allows a desktop computer to run a guest operating system (OS) which is independent instance of an OS on top of their host OS. Virtual PC emulates a standard PC hardware environment and is independent of the hosts hardware or setup. Microsoft Enterprise Desktop Virtualization (MED-V) is a managed client-hosted desktop virtualization solution. MED-V builds upon Virtual PC and adds features to deploy, manage, and control the virtual images. The images can also be remotely updated. The virtual machines run on the client computer. Also, applications that have been installed on the virtual computer can be listed on the host machines Start menu or as a desktop shortcut, giving the end user a seamless experience. MED-V can be very useful to support legacy applications that may not be able to run on the latest deployed operating system. The virtual images are portable and that makes it useful for a couple of scenarios. Employees that use their personal computers for work can now use a corporate managed virtual desktop. This solves a common problem where the personal computer might be running a home version of the operating system that does not allow it to connect to a corporate network. This also means that the enterprise only makes changes to the virtual computer and makes not changes to the personal computers OS. The other scenario where portability plays a factor is that the virtual image could be saved to a removable device, such as a USB flash drive. The virtual image could then be run from the USB drive on any computer that has an installation of Virtual PC. Although this is listed as a benefit by Tulloch, I also see some problems with this scenario. USB flash drives sometimes get lost and losing a flash drive in this scenario is like losing a whole computer, so caution should be exercised so that sensitive data is not kept on the flash drive. Secondly, based on personal experience, even with a fast USB flash drive, the performance of the virtual computer running from the USB flash drive is poor as compared to running the same image from the hard drive. Virtual Desktop Infrastructure (VDI) is server based desktop virtualization. In MED-V, the virtual image is on the client machine and runs on the client hardware. In VDI, the virtual images are on a Window Server 2008 with Hyper-V server and run on the server. The users data and applications, therefore, reside on the server. This solution seems to be a combination of Hyper-V and Terminal Services (discussed later in this section). There are several benefits to this approach. Employees can work from any desktop, whether in the office or at home. Also, the client requirements are very low. Using VDI, the virtual images can be deployed not only to standard desktops PCs, but also to thin clients and netbooks. Security is also enhanced because all of the data is housed on servers in the data center. Finally, administration is easier and more efficient due to the centralized storage of the images. Application Virtualization Microsoft Application Virtualization (App-V) Application virtualization allows applications to be streamed and cached to the desktop computer. The applications do not actually install themselves into the desktop operating system. For example, no changes are actually made to the Windows registry. This allows for some unusual virtual tricks like being able to run two versions of Microsoft Office on one computer. Normally, this would be impossible. App-V allows administrators to package applications in a self-contained environment. This package contains a virtual environment and everything that the application needs to run. The client computer is able to execute this package using the App-V client software. Because the application is self-contained, it makes no changes to the client, including no changes to the registry. Applications can be deployed or published through the App-V Management server. App-V packages can also be deployed through Microsofts System Center Configuration Manager or standalone .msi files located on network shares or removable media. App-V has several benefits for the enterprise. There is a centralized management of the entire application life cycle. There is faster application deployment due to less time performing regression testing. Since App-V applications are self-contained, there are no software compatibility issues. You can also provide on-demand application deployment. Troubleshooting is also made easier by using App-V. When an application is installed on a client, it creates a cache on the local hard drive. If an App-V application fails, it can be reinstalled by deleting the cache file. Presentation Virtualization Windows Server 2008 Terminal Services Terminal services, which has been around for many years, has been folded into Microsofts Virtualization offerings. A terminal server allows multiple users to connect. Each user receives a desktop view from the server in which they will run applications on the server. Any programs run within this desktop view actually execute on the terminal server. The client only receives the screen view from the server. The strategy employed here is that since the application will only use resources on the server, money can be spent on strong server hardware and money saved on lighter strength clients. Also, since the application is only on the server, it is easier to maintain the software, since it only needs to be updated on the server and not all of the clients. Also, since the application runs on the server, the data can be stored on the server as well, enhancing security. Another security feature is that every keystroke and mouse stroke is encrypted. The solution is also scalable and can be ex panded to use multiple servers in a farm. Terminal services applications can also be optimized for both high and low bandwidth scenarios. This is helpful for remote users accessing corporate applications from less than optimal connections. User-State Virtualization Roaming User Profiles, Folder Redirection, Offline Files This is another set of technologies that have been around since Windows 95 but have now been folded into the virtualization strategy. A user profile consists of registry entries and folders which define the users environment. The desktop background is a common setting that you will find as part of the user profile. Other items included in the user profile are application settings, Internet Explorer favorites, and documents, music, and picture folders. Roaming user profiles are profiles saved to a server that will follow a user to any computer that the user logs in to. For an example, a user with roaming profiles logs on to a computer on the factory floor and changes the desktop image to a picture of fluffy kittys. When he logs on to his office computer, the fluffy kittys are also on his office computers desktop as well. When using roaming profiles, one of the limitations is that the profile must be synchronized from the server to the workstation each time the user logs on. When the user logs off, the profile is then copied back up to the server. If folders, such as the documents folder, are included, the downloading and uploading can take some time. An improved solution is to use redirected folders. Folders, such as documents and pictures, can be redirected to a server location. This transparent to the user, for the user will still access his documents folder as if they were part of his local profile. This also helps with data backup, since it is easier to backup a single server than document folders located on multiple client computers. A limitation with roaming user profiles occurs when the server or network access to the server is down. Offline files attempt to address that limitation by providing access to network files even if the server location is inaccessible. When used with Roaming User Profiles and Folder Redirection, files saved in redirected folders are automatically made available for offline use. Files marked for offline use are stored on the local client in a client-side cache. Files are synchronized between the client-side cache and the server. If connection to the server is lost, the Offline Files feature takes over. The user may not even realize that there have been any problems with the server. Together, Roaming User profiles, Folder Redirection, and Offline Files are also an excellent disaster recovery tool. When a desktop computer fails, the biggest loss are the users data. With these three technologies in place, all the user would need to do is to log into another standard corporate issued computer and resume working. There is no downtime in trying to recover or restore the users data since it was all safely stored on a server. Review of Virtualization in the Enterprise Virtualization can enhance the way an enterprise runs the data center. Server virtualization can optimize hardware utilization. Desktop virtualization can provide a standard client for your end users. Application virtualization can allow central administration of applications and fewer chances of application incompatibilities. Presentation virtualization allows central management of applications and allowing low end clients, such as thin clients and netbooks, to run software to perform beyond the hardware limitations. User state virtualization gives the user a computer environment that will follow them no matter what corporate computer they use. Benefits and Advantages of Virtualization Virtualization has evolved into a very important entity and a platform for IT to take a step into computing history, being used by countless companies both large and small. This is due to Virtualizations capability to proficiently simplify IT operations and allow IT organizations to respond faster to changing business demands. Although virtualization started out as a technology used mostly in testing and development environments, in recent years it has moved toward the mainstream in production servers. While there are many advantages of this technology, the following are the top 5. Virtualization is cost efficient Virtualization allows a company or organization to save money on hardware, space, and energy. Using existing servers and/or disks to add more performance without adding additional capacity, virtualization directly translates into savings on hardware requirements. When it is possible to deploy three or more servers on one physical machine, it is no longer necessary to purchase three or more separate machines, which may in fact have only been used occasionally. In addition to one-time expenses, virtualization can help save money in the long run as well because it can drastically reduce energy consumption. When there are fewer physical machines this means less energy to power (and cool) them is needed. Virtualization is Green GreenIT is not just a fashion trend. Eco-friendly technologies are in high demand and virtualization solutions are certainly among them. As already mentioned, server virtualization and storage virtualization lead to decreased energy consumption; this automatically includes them in the list of green technologies. Virtualization Eases Administration and Migration When there are fewer physical machines, this also makes their administration easier. The administration of virtualized and non-virtualized servers and disks is practically the same. However, there are cases when virtualization poses some administration challenges and might require some training regarding how to handle the virtualization application. Virtualization Makes an Enterprise More Efficient Increased efficiency is one more advantage of virtualization. Virtualization helps to utilize the existing infrastructure in a better way. Typically an enterprise uses a small portion of its computing power. It is not uncommon to see server load in the single digits. Keeping underutilized machines is expensive and inefficient and virtualization helps to deal with this problem as well. When several servers are deployed onto one physical machine, this will increase capacity utilization to 90 per cent or more. Improved System Reliability and Security Virtualization of systems helps prevent system crashes due to memory corruption caused by software like device drivers. VT-d for Directed I/O Architecture provides methods to better control system devices by defining the architecture for DMA and interrupt remapping to ensure improved isolation of I/O resources for greater reliability, security, and availability. Dynamic Load Balancing and Disaster Recovery As server workloads vary, virtualization provides the ability for virtual machines that are over utilizing the resources of a server to be moved to underutilized servers.   This dynamic load balancing creates efficient utilization of server resources. In addition, disaster recovery is a critical component for IT, as system crashes can create huge economic losses. Virtualization technology enables a virtual image on a machine to be instantly re-imaged on another server if a machine failure occurs. Limitations and/or Disadvantages of Virtualization While one could conclude that virtualization is the perfect technology for any enterprise, it does have several limitations or disadvantages. Its very important for a network administrator to research server virtualization and his or her own networks architecture and needs before attempting to engineer a solution. Understanding the networks architecture needs allows for the adoption of a realistic approach to virtualization and for better judgment of whether it is a suitable solution in a given scenario or not. Some of the most notable limitations and disadvantages are having a single point of failure, hardware and performance demands, and migration. Single Point of Failure One of the biggest disadvantages of virtualization is that there is a single point of failure. When the physical machine, where all the virtualized solutions run, fails or if the virtualized solution itself fails, everything crashes. Imagine, for example, youre running several important servers on one physical host and its RAID controller fails, wiping out everything. What do you do? How can you prevent that? The disaster caused by physical failure can however be avoided with one of several responsible virtualized environment options. The first of these options is clustering. Clustering allows several physical machines to collectively host one or more virtual servers. They generally provide two distinct roles, which are to provide for continuous data access, even if a failure with a system or network device occurs, and to load balance a high volume of clients across several physical hosts.[14] In clustering, clients dont connect to a physical computer but instead connect to a logical virtual server running on top of one or more physical computers. Another solution is to backup the virtual machines with a continuous data protection solution. Continuous data protection makes it possible to restore all virtual machines quickly to another host if the physical server ever goes down. If the virtual infrastructure is well planned, physical failures wont be a frequent problem. However, this solut ion does require an investment in redundant hardware, which more or less eliminates some of the advantages of virtualization. [12] Hardware and Performance Demands Server virtualization may save money because less hardware is required thus allowing a decrease the physical number of machines in an enterprise, it does not mean that newer and faster computers are not necessary. These solutions require powerful machines. If the physical server doesnt have enough RAM or CPU power, performance will be disrupted. Virtualization essentially divides the servers processing power up among the virtual servers. When the servers processing power cant meet the application demands, everything slows down. [11] Therefore, things that shouldnt take very long could slow down to take hours or may even cause the server to crash. Network administrators should take a close look at CPU usage before dividing a physical server into multiple virtual machines. [11] Migration In current virtualization methodology, it is only possible to migrate a virtual server from one physical machine to another if both physical machines use the same manufacturers processors. For example, if a network uses one server that runs an Intel processor and another that uses an AMD processor, it is not possible to transfer a virtual server from one physical machine to the other. [11] One might ask why this is important to note as a limitation. If a physical server needs to be fixed, upgraded, or just maintained, transferring the virtual servers to other machines can decrease the amount of required down time during the maintenance. If porting the virtual server to another physical machine wasnt an option, then all of the applications on that virtual machine would be unavailable during the maintenance downtime. [11] Virtualization Market Size and Growth Market research reports indicate that the total desktop and server virtualization market value grew by 43% from $1.9 Billion in 2008 to $2.7 Billion in 2009. Researchers estimate that by 2013, approximately

Diabetes Mellitus Study Guide

DIABETES MELLITUS * Chronic multisystem dz , abnormal insulin production / impaired utilization * Disorder of glucose metabolism related to absent/ insuff insulin supply or poor utilization of inslin that’s available * 7th leading cause of death * leading cause of blindness, ESRD, lower limb amputation * contributing factor for heart dz/ stroke risk 2-4 x higher than without DM * INSULIN – hormone produced by cells in islets of Langerhans of pancreas.Normal – continously into bloodstream ( basal rate), or increased w/ meals (bolus) * Normal glucose range 70-120 mg/dL, average insulin secreted daily 40-50 U 0. 6 U/kg * Glucagon, epinephrine, GH, cortisol oppose effects of insulin counterregulatory hormones they blood glucose lebels, stimulate glucose production by liver, movement of glucose into cells. Insulin released from cells – as precursor / proinsulin thru liver enzymes form insulin & C-peptide ( C-peptide in serum & urine indicator of cell function) * in plasma insulin after meal storage of glucose as glycogen in liver/ muscle, inhibits gluconeogenesis, fat deposition, protein synthesis * Nl overnight fasting release of stored g;ucose from liver, protein from muscle, fat from adipose tissue * Skeletal muscle & adipose tissue receptors for insulin insulin-dependent tissues Type I Diabetes Juvenile onset, insulin-dependent, s/s abrupt but dz process present for several yrs, 5-10%, absent or minimal insulin production, virus/toxins, under 40, 40% before 20 yr * s/s thirst( polydipsia), polyuria, polyphagia ( hunger), fatigue, wt loss, Kussmaul respirations * immune mediated dz; T-cells attack & destroy cells * genetic predisposition & exposure to virus * Idiopathic diabetes – not atoimmune, strongly inherited, in small # pt w/ type I DM , African/Asian * Predisposition HLAs human leukocyte ntigens when exposed to viral infection cells destroyed * Long preclinical period, s/s develop when pancreas can no longer produce suffi cient insulin to maintain nl glucose levels * Req. insulin from outside source exogenous insulin eg. injection * No insulin diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) life threatening, results in metabolic acidosis * â€Å"honeymoon period† – newely diagnosed pts, tx initiated pt experience remissions req little insulin because cells produce suff amount of insulin lasts 3-12 mths then req permanent insulin Prediabetes * risk for developing diabetes glucose levels high but not high enough for diabetes diagnosis * impaired fasting glucose IGF 100-125 mg/dL * 2 hr oral glucose tolerance test OGTT 140-199 mg/dL * HgB A1C – 5. 7%-6. 4% risk for diabetes * Increased risk for developing DM type II – if no preventive measures develop DM in 10 yrs * Long term damage to body heart, blood vessels occur in prediabetes * Usually no symptoms * Maintain healthy weight, exercise regularly, healthy diet risk of developing diabetes Type II Diabetes * Adult onset, non-insulin dependent, 9 0% * > 35, overweight, tendency to run n families * African Am, Asian, Hispanics, Amerian Indians Some insulin is produced but either insufficient for body needs / poorly utilized * Gradual onset, many yrs undetected hyperglycemia, 500-1000mg/dL * Early usu. asymptomatic; high risk pt screen annually * Fatigue, recurrent inf, vaginal yeast inf, candida inf, prolonged wound healing, visual changes * Risk factor obesity ( abdominal/ visceral ) * 4 major metabolic abnormalities * insulin resistance > tissue no response to insulin / unresp receptors – receptors are located on skeletal muscles, fat & liver * ability of pancreas to produce insulin – fatigued from compensatory prod of insulin, ell mass lost * inappropriate glucose by liver – too much glucose for body needs – type II * altered prod. of hormones & cytokines by adipose tissue ( adipokines) role in glucose & fat metabolism – type II. Two adipokines ( adiponectin & leptin ) affect insulin sens itivity altered mechanism in type I & I * Metabolic syndrome > risk for type II & cardio dz, cluster of abnormalities, insulin resistance, insulin levels, triglycerides, HDLs, LDLs, HTN * Risk factors for metabolic syndrome central obesity, sedentary lifestyle, urbanization, westernization Gestational Diabetes During pregnancy, 7% of pregnancies * High risk – severe obesity, prior hx of gestational DM, glycosuria, polycystic ovary syndrome, family hx of DM II screened at 1st prenatal visit * Average risk OGTT at 24-28 wks of gestation * Higher risk of cesarean delivery, perinatal death, neonatal complications * Will have nl glucose levels within 6 wks postpartum but risk of DM II in 5-10 yrs * Nutritional therapy – 1st line , if doesn’t work insulin therapy Other specific types of diabetes * Due to other medical condition or treatment causes abn blood glucose levels * Damage , injury, destruction of cell function Cushing’s, hyperthyroidism, pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis, hemochromatosis, TPN * Meds > corticosteroid (prednisone), thiazides, phenytoin(Dilantin), antipsychotics – clozapine * Tx underlying condition, stop meds Diagnostic studies * A1C > 6. 5 % ; greater convenience, no fasting req, less day to day alterations during stress/ illness * FPG >126 – no caloric intake for 8 hrs prior testing ; confirmed by repeated testing another day; if has s/s and FPG>126 further testing OGTT not req * 2 hr OGTT >200, glucose load 75g accuracy depends on pt preparation, and factors that influence results.False negative > impaired GI absorption, falsely elevated> severe restrictions of carbs, acute illness, meds corticosteroids, contraceptives, bed rest * IFG impaired fasting glucose & IGT > prediabetes, 100-125 mg/dL, IGT 2 hr > 140-199 * Glycosylated HgB – HgB A1C > amount of glucose attached to HgB molecules over lifespan ( RBC 90-120 days ) DM pts should check it regularly, done to monitor success of tx / make chang es to tx < 6. % – risk of retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy dz affecting RBCs – can affect A1C results Treatment * Goals > s/s, promote well being, prevent acute complications, prevent/ delay onset/ progression; met when pt maintain glucose level as near to nl, daily decisions about food intake, blood glucose testing meds, exercise * Rapid acting insulin – lispro (Humalog), aspart (NovoLog) – onset 0-15 min, peak 60-90 min, dur. -4 hrs , clear, give 15 min before meals ; bolus * Short acting – Regular (Humulin R, Novolin R) onste ? -1 hr, peak 2-3hr, dur 3-6 hrs, injected 30-45 min before meals; bolus * Intermediate acting – NPH, basal insulin, onset 2-4hrs, peak 4-10hrs can result in hypoglycemia, dur. 10-16 hrs, can be mixed w/ short & rapid, cloudy, must be agitated before adm. Long acting – glargine (Lantus), detemir ( Levemir) addition to mealtime insulin, type I, to control glucose between meals & overnight, without it risk of developing DKA, no peak – risk of hypoglycemia , not diluted or mixed, clear; onset 1-2 hrs, dur. 24hrs +, basal * Combination > pt don’t want 2 separate injections, 2 type of insulin mixed together, not same control of glucose levels as with basal-bolus; ahort/rapid mixed w/ ntermediate provide both mealtime & basal coverage * Storage > vials room temperature 4 wks, heat & freezing alter insulin, between 32-86 F; avoid direct exp to sunlight, extra insulin in fridge/ traveling-thermos, Prefilled syringes – sight impaired, manual dexterity; syringes w/ c;udy solution in vertical position needle up to avoid clumping of suspension, rolled gently, warm before injection. * Injection > abdomen fastest absorption arm, thigh, buttock, rotate within 1 particular site; never into site that’s about to be exercised (heat = absorption & onset), vial 1ml=100U, SQ 90 degrees * Needles ? 5/16 inch (short – children, thin adults); gauges 28,29,30,31 – hi gher gauge = smaller diameter = more comfortable injection * Recapping done only by person using syringe, never recap syringe used by pt; alcohol swabs in health care facility before inj to HAI, at home soap & water * Insulin pump – continuous subq insulin infusion 24 hr/d basal rate , loaded w/ rapid acting insulin via plastic tubing to catheter in subq tissue.At meal time – bolus . (+) tight glucose control, similar to nl physiologic pattern, nl lifestyle, more flexibility (-) infection at site, risk of DKA, cost Problems w/ insulin therapy * Hypoglycemia * Allergic rxn – itching, erythema, burning around inj. site, may improve w/ low dose antihistamine ; rxns to Zinc, protamine, latex , rubber stoppers on vials * Lipodystrophy – atrophy of subq tissue if same inj site used Somogyi effect – rebound effect, overdose of insulin induces undetected hypoglycemia in hrs of sleep, produces glucose decline in response to too much insulin s/s headaches, n ight sweats, nightmares ; if in morning glucose – adcised to check glucose levels at 2-4am if hypoglycemia present at that time.If it is insulin dosage in affecting morning blood glucose is reduced TX : less insulin * Dawn phenomenon – hyperglycemia on awakening in the morning due to release counterregulatory hormones in predawn hrs ( possibly GH/cortisol) adolescence/ young; TX: adjustment in timing of insulin adm. or in insulin. Predawn fasting glucose levels insulin production from pancreas , s. ff > wt gain, hypoglycemia * Meglitinides repaglinide(Prandin) insulin prod, less likely cause hypoglycemia because more rapidly absorbed/eliminated, cause wt gain, take 30 min before meal, not if skipped * Biguanides – Metformin > glucose lowering, first choice DM II/prediabetes, obese & â€Å"starch blockers† slow down carbs absorption, taken with â€Å"first bite†, effectiveness> check 2 hr postprandial glucose levels * Thiazolidinediones – Ava ndia > â€Å"insulin sensitizers†, for pts w/ insulin resistance, don’t insulin Production, not cause hypoglycemia; risk of MI, stroke , not for pt w/ HF * DPP4 inhibitor – Januvia > new class, slow inactivation of incretin hormones; DDP4 inh are glucose dependent = risk of hypoglycemia, no wt gain * Incretin mimetics – exenatide (Byetta) > stimulate incretin horm which are in DM II, stim. of insulin, Suppress glucagon, satiety = caloric intake, slows gastric emptying; prefilled pen * Amylin analog > Amylin hormone secreted by cells, co secreted w/ insulin Pramlintide (Symlin) is Synthetic , type I & II when glucose level not achieved w/ insulin at mealtimes , subq thigh or abdomen NOT arm , not mixed w/ insulin – cause severe hypoglycemia ! * blockers — masks s/s of hypoglycemia, prolong hypoglycemic effects of insulin * Thiazide / loop diuretic — hyperglycemia, K Nutrition Type I > meal planning, exercise, developed w/ pt’s e ating habits & activity pattern in mind, day to day consistency in timing & amount of food eaten * Type II > wt loss = improved insulin resistance, total fats & simple sugars = calorie & carbs intake; Spacing meals , wt loss 5-7% = glycemic control, regular exercise * Carbohydrates > sugar, starches, fiber whole grains, fruits, veggies, low fat milk included min 130g/d * Glycemic index GI > describe blood glucose levels 2 hrs after carb meal , GI of 100 = 50g glucose * Fiber intake 14g/1000 kcal * Fats 7% of total calories , < 200mg/d cholesterol & trans fats * Protein same for diabetes / normal renal function / gen. population, high proein diet not recommended * Alcohol > inhibits gluconeogenesis ( breakdown of glycogenglucose) by liver; severe hypoglycemia in pt on insulin / oral hypoglycemic dx.Moderate alcohol consumption < 2 drinks men, track carbs w/ each meal & daily, set limit for max amount ( depends on age, wt, activity level) usu. 45-60g /meal ; also My Pyramid & plate me thod ( ? nonstarchy veggies, ? starch, ? protein, nonfat milk & fruit * Exercise > 150 min/wk moderate intensity aerobic; DM II resistance training 3 x wk, most adults should 30 min moderate intensity activity 5 x most days * Exercise > insulin resistance, blood glucose, wt loss which insulin resistance ( may need less meds), triglycerides, LDL, HDL, BP, circulation * Start slowly w/ progression. Insulin, sulfonylureas, meglitinides >risk of hypoglycemia with increase physical activity esp if exercise at peak of dx or no food intake.Effect may last 48 hrs post exercise Exercise 1 hr after meal, have 10-15g carb snack every 30 min. during exercise (prevent hypoglycemia). Before exercise glucose immediate info about glucose levels – can make adjustments diet, activity, meds * Recomm. for all insulin-treated pts * Multiple insulin injections – 3 or more x day, done before meals, before & after exercise esp in type I, whenever hypoglycemia suspected, when ill (stress), 2 h rs after start of meal – if effective Pancreas transplantation * For pt w/ ESRD, plan to have kidney transplant * Pancreas transplanted following kidney transplant, pancreas alone –rare * Pancreas alone only if hx of severe metabolic complications, emotional roblems w/ exogenous insulin, failure of insulin-based management * Improve quality of life, no exogenous insulin need, no dietary restrictions * Only partially able to reverse renal & neurologic complications * Need lifelong immunosuppression to prevent rejection * Pancreatic islet cell transplantation in experimental stage, islets from deceased pancreas via catheter into abdomen portal vein Nursing management * Pt active participant in management of diabetes regimen * Few/no episodes of acute hyper/hypoglycemic episodes, maintain glucose level near nl * Prevent/ delay chronic complications * Adjust lifestyle to accommodate DM regimen w/ min. stress Nursing assessment Past hx mumps, rubella, viral inf, recent trau ma, stress, pregnancy, infant>9lbs, Cushing, acromegaly, family hx of DM * Meds > compliance w/ insulin, OA; corticosteroids, phenytoin, diuretics * Eyes > sunken eyeballs, vitreal hemorrhages, cataract * Skin > dry, warm, inelastic, pigmented lesions on legs, ulcers(feet), loss of hair on toes * Respiratory > Kussmaul – rapid, deep * Cardio > hypotension, weak rapid pulse * GI > dry mouth, vomiting, fruity breath * Neuro > altered reflexes, restlessness, confusion, coma * MS > muscle wasting * Also electrolyte abnormalities, fasting glucose level >126, tolerance test> 200, leukocytosis, BUN, creatinine, triglycerides, cholesterol, LDL, HDL, A1C 45yrs without risk factors for diabetes Acute intervention * Hypoglycemia, DKA, HHS – hypersmolar hyperglycemic syndrome * Stress f acute illness/ surgery > counterregulatory hormones > hyperglycemia ( even minor upper resp infection or flu can cause this) * Continue regular diet, noncaloric fluids (broth, water, diet gelatin, decaffeinated), take OA/insulin as prescribed, monitor glucose Q4H * Acutely ill DM I , glucose>240 test urine for ketones Q3-4H , medium/large report to MD * Ill > eat than normal > continue OA meds/ insulin as prescribed + carbohydrate containing fluids (soup, juices, decaffeinated) * Unable to keep fluids/ food down MD * Don’t stop insulin when ill counterregulatory mechanisms will glucose level * Food intake important body needs extra energy to deal w/ stress Extra insulin may be needed to meet this demand, prevent DKA in DM I * Intraoperative > IV fluids & insulin before, during, after sx when there’s no oral intake In DM II w/ OA – explain it’s temporary measure, doesn’t mean worsening of DM * If contrast medium (w/iodine) > Metformin discontinued 1-2 days before sx, resumed 48 hrs after sx risk of acute renal failure.Resume after kidney function nl ( creatinine checked & is nl) * Insulin adm > teach proper administration, adjustments, side e ffects, assess response to insulin tx, if new to insulin assess ability to manage tx safely, cognitive status, ability to recognize/ tx hypoglycemia, if cognitive skill another responsible person must be assigned; diff to self inject/ afraid of needles * Follow ups > inspect injection sites ( lipodystrophy ) * Short term memory deficit > OA or short acting OA cuz doesn’t cause hypoglycemia * OA w/ diet & activity, not take extra pill when overeating * Diligent skin care & dental > aily brushing/ flossing, inform dentist about DM * Foot care !!! scrapes, burns treated promptly & monitored > nonirritating antiseptic ointment > dry sterile pad> not start to heal in 24 hrs or infection > MD * Regular eye exams * Travel – sedentary > walk Q2H to prevent DVT & prevent glucose , carry snacks, extra insulin COMPLICATIONS Diabetic Ketoacidosis DKA * Diabetic coma Profound deficiency of insulin > hyperglycemia, ketosis, acidosis, dehydration * Most likely in DM I pts, but someti mes in DM II ( severe illness/ stress) * Causes > illness, infection, undiagnosed DM I, inadeq insulin dosage, poor self management, neglect * Insulin – glucose cant be properly used for energy fat broken for fuel ketones (by product) serious when excessive in blood alter pH, cause metabolic acidosis ketonuria (in urine) & electrolyes depleted; impaired protein synthesis, nitrogen lost from tissues * Untreated depletion of Na, K, Cl, Mg, phosphate hypovolemiarenal failure/ retention of ketones & glucose shockcoma (result of dehydration, lytes & acidosis)death * s/s > dehydration, poor turgor, dry mm, HR, orthostatic hypotension, Kussmaul , abdominal pain, sunken eyeballs, acetone fruity odor, early s/s > lethargy,weakness * blood glucose >250, arterial blood pH IV access begin fluid/ electrolyte replacement NaCL 0. 45% or 0. 9% to restore urine output 30-60 ml/hr & BP * glucose level approach 250 5% dextrose added * Incorrect fluid repl > sudden Na & cerebral edema * Obtain K level before insulin started – insulin > further K * Insulin withheld until fluid resuscitation & K>3. 5 * Too rapid IV fluids & rapid lowering of glucose cerebral edema Hypersmolar hyperglycemic syndrome HHS * Life threatening, able to produce insulin to prevent DKA but not enough to prevent severe hyperglycemia, osmotic diuresis, ECF depletion * Less common than DKA * Often > 60, in DM II Causes > UTI, pneumonia, sepsis, acute illness, new DM II * Asymptomatic in early stages > so glucose can rise very high >600mg/dL * The higher glucose > in serum osm > neurologic manifestations somnolence, coma, seizures, hemiparesis, aphasia * Resemble CVA (stroke) determine glucose level for correct dx * Ketones absent in urine * Tx similar to DKA * First IV 0. 45% or 0. 9% NS, regular insulin given after fluid replacement * Glucose fall to 250 – add glucose 5% dextrose * Hypokalemia not as significant as in DKA * HHs require greater fluid replacement * Assess VS, I&O, turgor, l abs, cardiac / renal monitoring related to hydration & electrolyte levels, mental status, serum osm Hypoglycemia Low blood glucose glucagon & epinephrine > defense against hypoglycemia * s/s of epinephrine > shaking, palpitations, nervousness, diaphoresis, anxiety, hunger, pallor * brain req constant supply of glucose > when > affect mental functioning > LOC, diff speaking, visual disturbances, confusion, coma, death * Hypoglycemis unawareness > no warning signs until glucose reach critical point > incoherent, combative, LOC > often elderly w/ beta blocker meds * When very high glucose level falls too rapidly, too vigorous management of hyperglycemia * Mismatch in timing of food intake & peak of isulin/ OA * Can be quickly reversed Check glucose levels, if contain fat that glucose absorption; check glucose in 15 min * Still 70 eat regular meal/snack low peanut butter, bread, cheese, crackers, check glucose in 45 min * No significant imptovement after 2-3 doses of 15g carb MD * Pt no t alert to swallow 1mg glucagon IM in deltoid muscle ( nausea, vomiting rebound hypoglycemia) * Hospital setting > 20-50ml of 50% dextrose IV push * CHRONIC COMPLICATIONS OF DM Angiopathy * end organ dz from damage to blood vessels (angiopathy) 2nd to chronic hyperglycemia * leading cause of diabetes-related deaths, 68% deaths due to cardio, 16% strokes * causes: accumul.Of glucose metabolism by products (sorbitol) damage to nerve cells, abnormal glucose molecules in basement membrane of small blood vessels (eye,kidney), derangement in RBCs – oxygenation to tissues * DM I > keep blood glucose levels near to normal – retinopathy & nephropathy (complications of microvascular complications) Macrovascular complications * Dz of large, medium size blood vessels , earlier onset in pt w/ diabetes * W > 4-6x risk of cardiovascular dz, M > 2-3 x * risk factors > obesity, smoking, HTN, fat intake & sedentary lifestyle * Smoking injurious to pt w/DM, risk for blood vessel dz, CV d z, stroke, lower extremity amputations * Maintain BP control – prevention of CV / renal dz Microvascular complication * Thickening of vessel membranes in capillaries/ arterioles in response to chronic hyperglycemia * Are specific to diabetes Eyes ( retinopathy ), kidneys ( nephropathy ), skin (dermopathy ) * Some changes present w/DM II at time of dx, but s/s not appear until 10-20 yrs after onset of DM * Diabetic retinopathy – microvascular damage to retina, most common cause of blindness 20-74 yrs old. Nonproliferative> most common, partial occlusion of small blood vesselin retina microaneurysms, Proloferative> most severe, involves retina & vitreous neovasculization ( form new blood vessels to compensate) if macula involved vision is lost * DM II > dilated eye exam at time of diagnosis & annually, DM I within 5 yrs after DM onset * Laser photocoagulation * Virectomy * Glaucoma Nephropathy – microvascular complication, damage to small blood vessels that supply glomeruli / kidney.Leading cause of ESRD in US; same risk for DM I & II > HTN, smoking, genetic predisposition, chronic hyperglycemia * Screen for nephropathy annually w/ measurement albumin / creatinine ratio * If micro/macroalbuminuria > ACE inh ( lisinopril ) or angiotensin II rec antagonist ( Cozaar ) tx HTN & delay progression of nephropathy * Aggressive BP management & tight glucose control Neuropathy Sensory neuropathy (PNS)– loss of protective sensation in lower extremities amputations * Hyperglycemia > sorbitol & fructose accumulate in nerves damage * Distal symmetric polyneuropathy > hand/ feet bilaterally * Loss of sensation – to touch/ temperature * Pain > burning, cramping, crushing, tearing , at night * Paresthesias > tingling , burning, itching * At times skin too sensitive (hyperesthesia) * Foot injury & ulcerations without having pain TX : blood glucose control, topical creams capsaicin ( Zostrix ) 3-4 X/d pain in 2-3 wks, selective serotonin, norepin ephrine reuptake inh ( Cymbalta ), pregabali ( Lyrica ), gabapentin Autonomic neuropathy – can affect all body systems & lead to hypoglycemic unawareness, bowel incontinence, diarrhea, urinary retention Complications : * Delayed gastric emptying ( gastroparesis ) anorexia, n/v, reflux, fullness, can trigger hypoglycemia by delaying food absorption * Cardiovascular abnormalities , postural hypotension assess change from lying, sitting, standing, painless MI, resting tachycardia HR * Risk for falls * Sexual dysfunction > ED in diabetic men > 1st s/s of autonomic failure * Neurogenic bladder > urinary retention, diff. voiding, weak stream empty bladder Q3H in sitting position, Crede maneuver ( massage lower abdomen) * Cholinergic agonists > benthanechol Feet & lower extremities Risk for foot ulcerations & lower extremity amputations * Sensory neuropathy > major rosk for amputations due to loss of protective sensations LOPS * Unaware of foot injury, improper footwear, stepping on objects w/ bare feet * Screening using microfilament > insensitivity to 10g Semmes-Weinstein > risk for ulcers * Proper footwear, avoid injuries, diligent skin care, inspect feet daily * PAD risk for amputations due to blood flow to lower extremities * PAD s/s > intermittent claudication, pain at rest, cold feet, loss of hair, cap refill, dependent rubor ( redness when extr in dependent position ) * DX : ankle brachial index ABI & angiography * Casting to redistribute weight on plantar surface * Wound control > debridement, dressings, vacuum, skin grafting etc. Charcot’s foot > ankle & foot changes joint deformity need fitted footwear * Acanthosis nigricans – dark, coarse, thickened skin in flexures & neck * Necrobiosis lipoidica diabeticorum – DM I, red-yellow lesions w/ atrophic skin , shiny & transparent revealing blood vessels under the surface – young women * Granuloma annulare – DM I, autoimmune, partial rings of papules, dorsal surface of h ands/ feet Infection Candida albicans, boils, furuncles, bladder infections (glycosuria) antibiotics Gerentologic * reduction in cells, insulin sensitivity, altered carbohydrate metabolism * 20 % > 65 YO * # of conditions treated w/ meds that impair insulin action (